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Text File | 1994-05-02 | 10.2 KB | 210 lines

<text> <title> Philippines: History </title> <article> <hdr> Background Notes: Philippines History </hdr> <body> The history of the Philippines may be divided into four distinct phases; the pre-Spanish period (before 1521); the Spanish period (1521-1898); the American period (1898-1946); and the years since independence (1946-present). Pre-Spanish Period The first people on the Philippines, the Negritos, are believed to have come to the islands 30,000 years ago from Borneo and Sumatra, making their way across then-existing land bridges. Subsequently, people of Malay stock came from the south in successive waves, the earliest by land bridges and later in boats called barangays. The Malays settled in scattered communities, also called barangays, which were ruled by chieftains known as datus. Chinese merchants and traders arrived and settled in the ninth century A.D. In the 14th century, Arabs arrived, introducing Islam in the south and extending some influence even into Luzon. The Malays, however, remained the dominant group until the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. Spanish Period Ferdinand Magellan claimed the Philippines for Spain in 1521, and for the next 377 years, the islands were under Spanish rule. This period was the era of conversion to the Roman Catholic Church. A Spanish colonial social system was developed, complete with a strong centralized government and considerable clerical influence. The Filipinos were restive under the Spanish, and this long period was marked by numerous uprisings. The most important of these began in 1896 under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, and continued until the Americans defeated the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, during the Spanish-American War. Aguinaldo declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. American Period Following Admiral Dewey's defeat of the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, the United States occupied the Philippines. Spain ceded the islands to the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898), which ended the war. A war of resistance against U.S. rule, led by revolutionary President Aguinaldo, broke out in 1899. These hostilities are now referred to by many Filipinos as the Philippine-American War (1899-1902). The United States ultimately crushed the insurrection, and in 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and persuaded to swear allegiance to the United States. U.S. administration of the Philippines was declared from the first to be temporary and had as its goal the development of institutions that would permit and encourage the eventual establishment of a free and democratic government. Therefore, U.S. officials concentrated on the creation of such practical supports for democratic government as public education and a sound legal system. The first legislative assembly was elected in 1907. The passage of the Jones Act in 1916 further extended Filipino autonomy. A bicameral legislature, largely under Philippine control, was established. A civil service was formed and was gradually taken over by the Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by the end of World War I. The Catholic Church was disestablished, and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed. In 1935, under the terms of the Tydings-McDuffie Act, the Philippines became a self-governing commonwealth. Manuel Quezon was elected president of the new government, which was designed to prepare the country for independence after a 10-year transition period. World War II intervened, however, and in May 1942, Corregidor, the last American stronghold, fell. U.S. forces in the Philippines surrendered to the Japanese, placing the islands under Japanese control. The war to regain the Philippines began when Gen. Douglas MacArthur landed on Leyte on October 20, 1944. Filipinos and Americans fought together until the Japanese surrender in September 1945. Manila was destroyed during the final months of the fighting, and an estimated 1 million Filipinos lost their lives in the war against the Japanese. As a result of the Japanese occupation, the guerrilla warfare that followed, and the battles leading to liberation, the country suffered great damage and a complete organizational breakdown. Despite the shaken state of the country, the United States and the Philippines decided to move forward with plans for independence. On July 4, 1946, the Philippine Islands became the independent Republic of the Philippines, in accordance with the terms of the Tydings-McDuffie Act. In 1962, the official Independence Day was changed from July 4 to June 12, commemorating the date independence from Spain was declared by General Aguinaldo in 1898. July 4 is celebrated in the Philippines as Philippine-American Friendship Day. Postindependence Period The early years of the independence were dominated by U.S.-assisted postwar reconstruction. A communist-inspired Huk Rebellion (1945-53) complicated recovery efforts before its successful suppression under the leadership of President Ramon Magsaysay. The succeeding administrations of Presidents Carlos P. Garcia (1957-61) and Diosdado Macapagal (1961-65) sought to expand Philippine ties to its Asian neighbors, implement domestic reform programs, and develop and diversify the economy. In 1972, President Ferdinand E. Marcos (1965-86) declared martial law, citing growing lawlessness and open rebellion by the communist rebels as his justification. Marcos governed from 1973 until mid-1981 in accordance with the transitory provisions of a new constitution that replaced the commonwealth constitution of 1935. He suppressed democratic institutions and restricted civil liberties during the martial law period, ruling largely by decree and popular referenda. The government began a process of political normalization in 1978-81, culminating in the reelection of President Marcos to a 6-year term that would have ended in 1987. However, Marcos continued to ignore human rights issues despite the end of martial law on January 17, 1981, and his government retained its wide arrest and detention powers. The assassination of opposition leader Benigno (Ninoy) Aquino upon his return to the Philippines in 1983 after a long period of exile coalesced popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and set in motion a succession of events that culminated in a snap presidential election in February 1986. The opposition united under a ticket headed by Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino, and Salvador Laurel, head of the United Nationalist Democratic Organization (UNIDO). The election was marred by widespread electoral fraud on the part of Marcos and his supporters. International observers, including a U.S. delegation led by Senator Richard Lugar (R-Indiana), denounced the official results. Marcos was forced to flee the Philippines in the face of a peaceful civilian-military uprising that ousted him and installed Corazon Aquino as president on February 25, 1986. Current Political Conditions The traditional Filipino political parties were largely inactive during the period of martial law due to having been politically overwhelmed by the Marcos government's New Society Movement. However, in an outright display of dissent, several opposition groups (led by UNIDO) boycotted the 1981 presidential election. The assassination of Ninoy Aquino encouraged the opposition to assume a more active political role, as was evidenced by opposition participation in the May 1984 national assembly elections. Following the People's Power Revolution, which forced Marcos into exile, newly installed President Aquino declared an ambitious program designed to restore democratic institutions, revitalize the economy, and defeat a virulent communist insurgency. She removed restrictions on the press, recognized civil liberties, and released political prisoners detained by Marcos. Communist rebels, active throughout the Philippines, constitute the greatest single threat to the survival of the Aquino government. The communist New People's Army (NPA), which grew dramatically during the final years of Marcos rule, was dealt a political setback with the accession of President Aquino and the implementation of her reform agenda. Despite a 60-day cease-fire in 1986-87, fighting between the NPA and government troops continues in many parts of the country. The insurgency resulted in the loss of close to 4,000 lives in 1988. NPA activities, which were once largely limited to rural areas and cities far from Manila, have become increasingly common in the national capital region. The NPA employs terrorist tactics including murder, bombings, and extortion in its effort to seize power and establish a totalitarian state. In the southern regions, armed rebels belonging to the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and other smaller groups are engaged in an ongoing effort to secure independence for the country's Muslim minority. On August 1, 1989, President Aquino signed into law the Muslim Mindanao Autonomy Bill, marking a step forward in meeting the constitutional requirement to establish a Muslim Mindanao Autonomous Region and to satisfy Muslim demands for recognition of their separate traditions. A plebescite is projected to be held in November 1989 in the 13 provinces and nine cities potentially subject to the bill's provisions. Marcos loyalists and disgruntled elements of the Philippine Armed Forces have been implicated in several efforts to destablilize the Aquino government. The most serious incident was an attempted coup in August 1987 by military mutineers critical of the government's counterinsurgency program. Some of the leaders responsible for this unsuccessful coup and other destabilizing activities from the right remain at large. The Aquino government has addressed legitimate military grievances while unequivocally communicating its willingness to use all means at its disposal to oppose unconstitutional efforts to change the government. Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, September 1989. </body> </article> </text>